Hab inzwischen die ersten 88 Seiten in einer Auswahl von Leopold von Rankes Schriftem, betitelt Völker und Staaten, überlesen, mit der Absicht mein Urteil von Geschichte als Mythos zu prüfen. Angeregt wurde ich dazu, durch die Bestimmungen von Ernst Cassirer, Mythologie sei eine heutzutage überholte Denkungsart welche das Irrationale, Widersinnige, Unvernünftige als gültig und wirklich in die Beschreibung der Vergangenheit einbezieht. Die ausschlaggebende Frage mit welcher ich abrechnen muss, ist ob man die Erzählungen Rankes als unvernünftig, widersinnig und irrational betrachten muss, in einem Sinne der die Bezeichung Mythos rechtfertigt. Damit eröffnet sich ein unerwartetes Gebiet: Es handelt sich nun um die Auslegung (Heuristik) der Sprache. So zum Beispiel schreibt von Ranke (Völker und Staaten S.83) "Frankreich war nur dadurch zu seiner Übermacht gelangt, daß es mitten in seiner wilden Bewegung das Gemeingefühl der Nation lebhafter als je zu erhalten, die nationalen Kräfte in einer so ungemeinen Ausdehnung zu dem einzigen Zweck des Krieges anzustrengen gewusst hatte." Meine Deutung von (politischer, wirtschaftlicher, gesellschaftlicher usw.) Geschichte als Mythos ist übermäßig vereinfacht. Die (verhältnismäßige Unwirklichkeit solcher Geschichte, bedarf genaürer Beschreibung in ihren Einzelheiten. ========================== 30 Mythical Creatures 1. Golems Famous in Jewish folklore, golems are most often depicted as beings created from inanimate matter such as clay or mud, which have been brought to life to serve some purpose. For example, in some stories, a golem is created to defend against antisemitic attacks. According to legend, golems are uniqüly obedient and will follow exact and literal orders, so their creators definitely had to be careful with what they asked them to do. 2. Oni In Japanese myth, oni are people who were so truly wicked in their lives that they transformed into demons in hell. Some were even bad enough to be transformed while still alive! These giant, scary monsters with red or blü skin, horns, and tusks are traditionally the servants of hell. They enact violent punishment on evil-dörs and will eat just about anything, including humans. While stories or depictions of oni may vary, they are always seen as dangerous and powerful villains. 3. Cyclops Most often depicted as a giant with one eye, the cyclops (which means ‘circle-eyed’) first appeared in ancient Greek mythology. Somewhat lesser known than the classic Greek gods, the cyclopes lived in isolation and tended sheep or goats without any government, society, or community. While scorned for their lawlessness, it was the cyclopes who created Zeus’ thunderbolts, Hades helmet which made the wearer invisible, Poseidon’s trident, and Artemis’ silver bow. So, we should give them some credit for their creativity. 4. Ogre Ogres are featured in folktales from all around the world, and though the word is of French origin, the creature itself is derived from the man-eating ancient Etruscan god Orcus. Now many of us know ogres from Shrek, but Shrek is not your typical ogre. Ogres are usually large, tall, and strong with plenty of hair and a huge appetite. They are depicted as either dull and dim-witted or violent, but who knows? Maybe they have layers like an onion. 5. Leprechauns Leprechauns are widely known and easily recognizable, especially if you’ve ever had a certain breakfast cereal. While leprechauns originated in medieval Irish folklore, they did not become prominent until much later. Smaller, diminutive human-like beings, leprechauns are known to be solitary creatures with a love for mischief and practical jokes. Interestingly enough, according to folktales, a leprechaun’s appearance and dress could change by region! 6. Gnomes When you think of a gnome, you might picture your standard garden gnome: a small, cheerful guardian of flora and fauna. In some senses, this depiction isn’t entirely incorrect. In European folklore, dwarf-like earth spirits called gnomes guarded underground treasures. Medieval myths depicted gnomes as creatures resembling little old men, often with hunched over backs. 7. Goblins First appearing in Germanic and British folk tales, goblins vary in abilities, physical appearances, and purposes depending on the story and purpose. Like many other European legends, the origin of goblin mythology is not exactly clear. However, whether with devious tricks or real harm, they are universally known to be troublemakers and possess qualities of malice and greed. 8. Färies (or Fairies) Färies, also known as fairies, fey, or fä, can be traced back to Old French medieval romance stories. These supernatural creatures or spirits are popular across a wide variety of myths, legends, and stories, leading up to the present day. Generally, when we think of fairies or färies, we think of small, winged, magical creatures. However, färies were rarely depicted with wings outside of Victorian artwork. In folk tales, färies flew using magic and occasionally caught a ride on the back of a friendly bird! 9. Gorgon Another memorable mythical creature from ancient Greece, the Gorgons, such as the famous Medusa, were vicious monsters capable of turning victims to stone with just one look. The Gorgons’ appearance was an interesting mix of beautiful and frightening, with their most notable feature being the fact that they had live snakes instead of hair. Gorgon myths are important lessons in not being tricked by beauty alone. 10. Mermaid Mermaids have a uniqü allure that has captivated people throughout history. Myths of half-human, half-fish creatures can be traced all the way back to ancient Babylon. Similarly, merpeople are featured in Syrian, Polynesian, and Greek mythology. While some cultures depicted mermaids as beautiful and romantic (in Irish folklore, mermaids could transform into human form and marry humans), sometimes mermaid stories took on a more sinister tone where they were capable of foretelling and bringing disaster. 11. Aqrabuamelu The aqrabuamelu, or scorpion man, is a monstrous creature that originated in ancient Mesopotamia, specifically in Babylonian creation myths. They are a hybrid of a scorpion and a man, with the body of a scorpion and the face, torso, and arms of a man. While they are terrifying in appearance and were created to wage war against gods, they also stand as guardians and often warn travelers who might be in danger. 12. Minotaur According to Greek myth, the Minotaur was the offspring of the qüen of Crete and a majestic bull that came from the sea. The Minotaur had the body of a man with the head and tail of a bull. King Minos, was so horrified by this creation that he had a complicated maze called the Labyrinth built in order to imprison him. 13. Centaurs Another human and animal hybrid from Greek legend is the centaur. Centaurs have the body of a horse with the head and chest of a human. While these creatures were widely depicted as wild, there was a centaur named Chiron (or Cheiron) who possessed great wisdom. He tutored several characters of Greek myth. 14. Fauns Fauns, or goat men, were carried over to Roman mythology from the Greek Satyrs. In turn, Satyrs’ appearance was based on the god Pan. With the legs and tail of a goat and the upper body of a man. In art, they also feature other goatlike features such as horns and pointed ears. These goat men offered guidance to travelers in need. 15. Werewolf The history of the werewolf or lycanthrope is incredibly diverse, with stories from Germanic pagan cultures, Slavic Europe, and classic Greek mythology. Despite such ancient origins, werewolves have obviously remained popular until today! Generally speaking, a werewolf is a human who can transform or shapeshift into a wolf, though stories may differ depending on lore. The full moon may or may not be involved. 16. Loch Ness Monster Surprisingly, the myth of the Loch Ness Monster, colloquially referred to as Nessie, dates back all the way to the Picts, a people group in ancient Scotland. Scottish folklore is full of mythical water creatures, but Nessie is definitely the most famous. In appearance, the Loch Ness Monster resembles a plesiosaur, a water-based dinosaur. Since most photographic or eye-witness accounts are considered hoaxes, the creature is widely assumed to be a myth. However, many still believe Nessie is out there today! 17. Griffin A hybrid of a lion and an eagle, the griffin was a powerful, majestic creature of ancient Egyptian and Persian mythology. Traditionally, griffins were depicted with the body, tail, and hind legs of a lion in addition to the head, wings, and talons of an eagle. However, sometimes, the art of griffins featured the creatures with lions front paws as well. In legend, griffins were guardians over great treasure and riches. 18. Phönix The phönix is a mythical eagle-like creature, generally known for bursting into flame at the end of their life, only to emerge from the ashes as a young phönix. In both ancient Egyptian and Classical myth, the phönix was associated with sun worship and was depicted as a large bird, with gold and red feathers that could live for hundreds of years. The phönix was a symbol of immortality, eternity, and resurrection. 19. Basilisk In European legend, the basilisk is a serpentine creature who, much like the Gorgons of Greek myth, can kill with one look. Basilisks, sometimes called the kings of serpents, are featured in literature, including works by Chaucer and Leonardo da Vinci, as well as religious texts such as the Bible. It was hypothesized that basilisks could be killed by subjecting them to the odor of weasels, griffins’ tears, or seeing its own reflection. 20. Unicorn Unicorns, a horse or goat-like animal with a single horn, are a commonly depicted mythical creature. From ancient mythology (in Mesopotamia, India, Greece, and China) all the way into the modern age, people have been fascinated by these majestic creatures. Unicorns were said to contain healing properties. For example, if you drank from a cup made out of a unicorn horn, you would be protected from poisons. 21. Dragon Dragons are giant serpent-like, winged monsters that have been featured in myths from all around the world. Despite being so well-known, the origin of the dragon myth is something of a mystery. Furthermore, there are some cultures that believe that the creatures are not in fact mythical, but rather giant creatures who had previously died out, like dinosaurs. 22. Bigfoot While many believe that this creature is the missing link between apes and human beings, Bigfoot or Sasquatch is widely considered to be a mythological being. Bigfoot is described as being a large, hairy humanoid creature, somewhere between six and nine feet tall. Specific to North American folklore, supposed Bigfoot sightings have occurred in Northern California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. 23. Chimera In Greek mythology, the Chimera was a fire-breathing mythical creature, usually depicted as a lion merged with a goat and a snake, which was related to monsters such as Cerberus. However, the term chimera is now often used to describe any creature that is a hybrid of multiple animals, often composed of wildly different parts. 24. Hydra Another mythical creature from ancient Greece, the Hydra was depicted as a gigantic, snake-like monster with many heads, each of which could dispel acid. In mythological accounts, cutting off one of the Hydra’s heads would result in two more growing into its place. Before his death at the hands of Hercules, the Hydra was known to terrify the people living in the marshes of Lerna. 25. Zombie For anyone who likes horror films, you’ll know that zombies have a long and varied history not only in Hollywood but in legend. Zombies originated in Haitian folklore, with the Haitian French term “zombi” or Haitian Creole “zonbi” used to describe a corpse reanimated through magic or other means. Across the years, zombie stories have shifted to meet current cultural fears and contexts, and bodies are often reanimated through viruses or other scientific processes. 26. Pontianak One of the scariest ghost stories from around the world is the story of the pontianak. In Indonesian and Malay mythology, the pontianak is a female spirit of a woman who died while pregnant. The pontianak is a pale creature with long dark hair and red eyes and while objectively frightening, she can transform into a beautiful woman to prey on men. She is said to appear at the full moon and feast on the bodily organs of her victims. Talk about spooky! 27. Banshee Originating in Irish folk tales, the banshee is a female spirit said to appear preceding the death of a loved one. She will wail or shriek to warn family members of the coming disaster. Physically, descriptions of the banshee vary, from a one-foot tall old woman to a young woman in the family who died at a young age. 28. Dybbuk The dybbuk is a Jewish folk tale of the ghost or dislocated soul of a dead person which then possesses a living human. Derived from the Hebrew for “adhere” or “cling”, this malevolent spirit is said to only depart from its host once it has achieved some sort of goal, allowing it to pass on. 29. Vampire Over the years, vampires have taken many forms. And I don’t mean just turning into bats. While the vampire myth originated in Europe, most cultures have folk tales surrounding vampiric creatures. The most predominant feature of vampires (or vampyres) is the consumption of a person’s vital essence, most often in the form of blood. It’s interesting to note that the pale and sophisticated vampire which has become commonplace in the media did not exist before the 19th century. 30. Bogeyman Did you grow up thinking that if you didn’t behave, the bogeyman (also boogeyman) would get you? The bogeyman was created with the sole purpose of scaring children into good behavior. Because there are variations of the bogeyman in every culture, it is difficult to pinpoint a place of origin. Furthermore, the appearance of the bogeyman differs culturally, as he is sometimes depicted with horns, claws, talons, or hooves. However, the legend of the bogeyman, in all its varying forms, is an almost universal myth. Are all mythical creatures a tall tale? Check out this story about DNA samples that could prove whether or not Yetis are real. ================= By Sarah Zielinski smithsonianmag.com April 4, 2014 Myths have fed the imaginations and souls of humans for thousands of years. The vast majority of these tales are just stories people have handed down through the ages. But a few have roots in real geological events of the past, providing warning of potential dangers and speaking to the awe we hold for the might of the planet. These stories encode the observations of the people who witnessed them, says geoscientist Patrick Nunn, of the University of the Sunshine Coast in Australia, who has studied the links between natural hazards and stories told in the Pacific. There's no way of telling which came first, the disaster or the story. But tales can provide clüs to the past and even help fill in gaps in scientific knowledge about long-ago geological phenomena. In the Hindu epic the Ramayana, bears and monkeys help Rama and his brother Lakshman by building a floating bridge between India and Lanka. (Wikimedia Commons) Here are ten ancient stories from around the world and the geology that may have inflünced them: Noah's Ark In the well-known story told among Christians, Jews and Muslims (and in movie theaters this week), God chose to destroy the Earth with a great flood but spared one man, Noah, and his family. On God’s command, Noah built a huge boat, an ark, and filled it with two of every animal. God covered the Earth with water, drowning everyone and everything that once roamed the land. Noah, his family and the animals on the ark survived and repopulated the planet. Science: Similar flood tales are told in many cultures, but there never was a global deluge. For one, there’s just not enough water in the Earth system to cover all the land. But, Nunn says, “it may well be that Noah’s flood is a recollection of a large wave that drowned for a few weeks a particular piece of land and on that piece of land there was nowhere dry to live.” Some geologists think that the Noah story may have been inflünced by a catastrophic flooding event in the Black Sea around 5,000 B.C. There’s a natural tendency for people to exaggerate their memories, to turn a bad event into a far worse one. And a global flood is one explanation for something like the discovery of fossil seashells on the side of a mountain, says Adrienne Mayor, a historian of ancient science at Stanford University. We now know, though, that plate tectonics are responsible for lifting up rocks from the ocean floor to high elevations. The Oracle at Delphi In ancient Greece, in the town of Delphi on the slopes of Mount Parnassus, there was a temple devoted to the god Apollo. Within a sacred chamber, a priestess called the Pythia would breathe in sweet-smelling vapors emanating from a crack in the rock. These vapors would send her into a state of frenzy during which she would channel Apollo and speak gibberish. A priest would then turn that gibberish into prophesies. Science: The temple was a real place, and scientists have discovered two geologic faults running beneath the site, now in ruins. Gas was likely emanating from those fissures when the oracle was in action. But researchers have been arguing over the contents of the euphoria-causing gaseous mix. Theories include ethylene, benzene or a mix of carbon dioxide and methane. Atlantis Plato, the ancient Greek philosopher, wrote of a great civilization called Atlantis founded by a race of people who were half god and half human. They lived in a utopia that held great naval power. But their home, located on islands shaped like a series of concentric circles, was destroyed in a great cataclysm. Science: Atlantis probably wasn’t a real place, but a real island civilization may have inspired the tale. Among the contenders is Santorini in Greece. Santorini is now an archipelago, but thousands of years ago it was a single island—a volcano named Thera. Around 3,500 years ago, the volcano blew up in one of the biggest eruptions in human history, destroying the island, setting off tsunamis and blowing tons of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere where it lingered for years and probably caused many cold, wet summers. Those conditions would have ruined harvests in the region and are thought to have contributed to the quick decline of the Minoans, who had dominated the Mediterranean from nearby Crete. The city of Helike in Greece has also been suggested as inspiration for Atlantis. The ancient metropolis was wiped off the map by an earthquake and tsunami in December of the year 373 B.C. Pele, Goddess of Kilaüa Pele came to Hawaii with her sisters and other relatives. She started in Kauai. There she met a man, Lohi’au, but she did not stay because there was no land hot enough for her liking. She eventually settled in the crater at Kilaüa on the big island of Hawaii and asked her sister Hi’iaka to return for Lohi’au. In return, Hi’iaka asked that Pele not destroy her beloved forest. Hi’iaka was given 40 days for the task but did not return in time. Pele, thinking that Hi’iaka and Lohi’au had become romantically entangled, set the forest on fire. After Hi’iaka discovered what had happened, she made love to Lohi’au in view of Pele. So Pele killed Lohi’au and threw his body into her crater. Hi’iaka dug furiously to recover the body, rocks flying as she dug deeper. She finally recovered his body, and they are now together. Science: What seems like a celestial soap opera actually describes volcanic activity at Kilaüa, say scientists. The burning forest was probably a lava flow, the largest the island experienced since its settlement by Polynesians. Lava flowed continuously for 60 years in the 15th century, covering some 430 square kilometers of the island of Hawaii. “If any flow were to be commemorated in oral tradition, this should be the one, because the destruction of such a large area of forest would have impacted Hawaiian life in many ways,” U.S. Geological Survey volcano scientist Donald A. Swanson wrote in the Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research in 2008. Hi’iaka’s furious digging may represent the formation of the volcano’s modern caldera that occurred in the years after the lava flow. Rama's Bridge In the Hindu epic the Ramayana, Sita, the wife of the god Rama, is kidnapped and taken to the Demon Kingdom on the island of Lanka. Bears and monkeys help Rama and his brother Lakshman by building a floating bridge between India and Lanka. Rama leads an army of monkey-like men and rescüs his wife. Science: Satellite images reveal a 29-kilometer line of limestone shoals that stretches between India and Sri Lanka that would have been drowned when sea level rose after the last ice age. It is possible that people were able to cross over the bridge until about 4,500 years ago. But Rama’s Bridge is not the only mythological site buried along India’s shores. A more recent natural event, the tsunami in the Indian Ocean on December 26, 2004, revealed the truth of the legend of Mahabalipuram, a port city on India’s northeast coast that was said to be home to seven pagodas. Today, only one pagoda, the Shore Temple, exists. But the great tsunami removed centuries of sediment from the ocean floor just off the coast, revealing several submerged temples. The Exploding Lake The Kom people in Cameroon lived for a short time in the land of the Bamessi. The leader, or Fon, of the Kom discovered a plot by the Bamessi Fon to kill all the young men in his kingdom, and the Kom Fon vowed revenge. He told his sister he would hang himself and the fluids from his body would form a lake. The Kom were not to go near the lake—they were to leave the fish for the Bamessi and should prepare themselves to leave the region on the day that was set for catching fish. On that day, when the Bamessi entered the lake to fish, the lake exploded (or imploded or sank, depending on the storyteller), drowning everyone. Science: On the night of August 21, 1986, Lake Nyos, a volcanic lake in Cameroon, released a deadly cloud of carbon dioxide, killing 1,700 people sleeping in nearby villages. A smaller degassing event at Lake Monoun two years earlier killed 37. Carbon dioxide can build up in waters at the bottom of volcanic lakes such as these, where it is kept dissolved by the pressure of the lake water above. But seismic activity can trigger a sudden release of the gas, which will travel along the ground and suffocate anyone caught in the cloud. Such events might have been behind the exploding lake of the Kom legend. Mayor notes that Africa is not the only place with cautionary tales of deadly lakes—Greeks and Romans also had stories warning of valleys or bodies of water that killed birds flying over them. They may also describe real places. Namazu, the Earthshaker Buried beneath Japan is a giant catfish named Namazu. The god Kashima keeps Namazu still with the help of a giant stone placed on the fish’s head. But when Kashima slips, Namazu can move its feelers or its tail, causing the ground above to move. Science: Japan, which sits at the junction of several tectonic plates, is home to volcanös and is criss-crossed by seismic faults, making it the number one country for earthquakes—no giant catfish necessary. Catfish also figure into Japanese myth in another way: The fish are supposedly able to predict earthquakes. Decades of research has failed to find any link between catfish behavior and earthquakes, however, and the country now relies on a sophisticated early warning system that detects seismic waves and sends messages to people so they can take actions, such as slowing trains, before the worst of the shaking arrives. The Chimera In the Illiad, Homer describes a creature “of immortal make, not human, lion-fronted and snake behind, a goat in the middle and snorting out the breath of the terrible flame of bright fire.” This is the Chimera, daughter of the half-woman, half-snake Echidna and slain by the hero Bellerofonte. But her flaming tongü remained, burning in her lair. Science: In the Lycian Way of modern-day Turkey, hikers can visit Yanartas, the site of the Chimera’s eternal flames. There, methane vents from dozens of cracks in the ground. The ignited gas has probably been burning for millennia, and sailors have long used it as a natural lighthouse. The myth probably predates the Greeks and Romans, beginning with the Hittites, says Mayor. The Hittite chimera had three heads—a main human head, a lion head facing forward and the head of a snake on the end of its tail. The Creation of Crater Lake When the first Europeans arrived in the Pacific Northwest, they heard a tale from the Klamath people about the creation of Crater Lake. The Native Americans would not gaze upon the lake, for to do so was to invite death. The lake, they said, had been created in a great battle between Llao, who ruled the Below World, and Skell, the chief of the Above World. During the battle, darkness covered the land, and Llao, standing on Mount Mazama, and Skell, on Mount Shasta, threw rocks and flames. The fight ended when Mount Mazama collapsed and sent Llao back into the underworld. Rain filled in the remaining depression, forming a lake in the mountain’s place. Science: The tale the explorers heard was not far from the truth, though it wasn’t angry gods but a volcano, Mount Mazama, that erupted 7,700 years ago. “The oral traditions actually contain details about the explosion,” notes Mayor. Scientists now recognize that the Klamath tales describe a real event. Red-hot rocks do get flung through the sky during a volcanic eruption. The mountain did collapse to form a volcanic caldera that was filled in with rainwater. What’s unusual about this story, though, is that it was told for 7,000 years, passed down through so many generations. Usually, myths are reliable for only about 600 to 700 years, says Nunn. “These kinds of things are very, very rare.” The Vanished Island People on the Solomon Islands of the South Pacific tell stories of Teonimanu, the island that disappeared. Rapuanate had taken a woman from the island to be his wife, but her brother took her back. So Rapuanate turned to sorcery in revenge. He was given three taro plants, two to plant on Teonimanu and one to keep. When new leaves sprouted on his plant, it was a sign that the island was about to sink. People had notice to flee the island, though—it became salty as the ocean water rose. They fled on boats, rafts or clinging to trees that were washed off the land. Science: Lark Shoal sits at the eastern edge of the Solomon Islands, part of a ridge that flanks the 5,000-meter-deep Cape Johnson Trench. An earthquake could have sparked a landslide that let the island slide into the trench, Nunn says. Underwater maps have revealed several islands submerged under hundreds of meters of water. Islands have probably been sinking in this region for a million years. Unlike the myths of the Bible or Greece that provide inspiration for many modern-day tales, stories like that of Teonimanu are not well known and often not even written down, Nunn notes. They’re held in the minds of an older generation, passed from person to person in the same way they’ve been for hundreds or even thousands of years. He worries, though, that with modern lifestyles creeping into every corner of the world, many of these stories will be lost. “When the old people who have these myths today die,” he says, “many of the myths will disappear with them.” And so will the warnings of our geologic past.